Personality and Values

CHAPTER 4 Personality and Values LEARNING OBJECTIVES After studying this chapter, students should be able to: 1. Define personality, describe how it is measured, and explain the factors that determine an individual’s personality. 2. Describe the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator personality framework and assess its strengths and weaknesses. 3. Identify the key traits in the Big Five personality model. 4. Demonstrate how the Big Five traits predict behavior at work. 5. Identify other personality traits relevant to OB. . Define values, demonstrate the importance of values, and contrast terminal and instrumental values. 7. Compare generational differences in values and identify the dominant values in today’s workforce. 8. Identify Hofstede’s five value dimensions of national culture. Summary and Implications for Managers Personality – What value, if any, does the Big Five model provide to managers? From the early 1900s through the mid-1980s, researchers sought to f ind a link between personality and job performance. The outcome of those 80-plus years of research was that personality and job performance were not meaningfully related across traits or situations. †[i] However, the past 20 years have been more promising, largely due to the findings surrounding the Big Five. Screening candidates for jobs who score high on conscientiousness—as well as the other Big Five traits, depending on the criteria an organization finds most important—should pay dividends. Each of the Big Five traits has numerous implications for important OB criteria.Of course, managers still need to take situational factors into consideration. [ii] Factors such as job demands, the degree of required interaction with others, and the organization’s culture are examples of situational variables that moderate the personality–job performance relationship. You need to evaluate the job, the work group, and the organization to determine the optimal p ersonality fit. Other traits, such as core self-evaluation or narcissism, may be relevant in certain situations, too. Although the MBTI has been widely criticized, it may have a place in organizations.In training and development, it can help employees to better understand themselves and it can help team members to better understand each other. And it can open up communication in work groups and possibly reduce conflicts. Values -Why is it important to know an individual’s values? Values often underlie and explain attitudes, behaviors, and perceptions. So knowledge of an individual’s value system can provide insight into what â€Å"makes the person tick. † Employees’ performance and satisfaction are likely to be higher if their values fit well with the organization.For instance, the person who places great importance on imagination, independence, and freedom is likely to be poorly matched with an organization that seeks conformity from its employees. Manag ers are more likely to appreciate, evaluate positively, and allocate rewards to employees who â€Å"fit in,† and employees are more likely to be satisfied if they perceive that they do fit in. This argues for management to strive during the selection of new employees to find job candidates who have not only the ability, experience, and motivation to perform but also a value system that is compatible with the organization’s.The chapter opens by introducing Stephen Schwarzman, CEO of the Blackstone Group. He profited to the tune of $7. 75 billion when his company went public. His combative style has not hindered his success as Fortune called him the â€Å"King of Wall Street. † Using military terms like war and he would rather kill off his rival; Blackstone has thrived under his leadership and has become one of the most profitable and feared investment groups on Wall Street. Schwarzman is not the easiest to work for. One executive was purportedly fired for the sou nd his nose made when he breathed.He may be a huge success but would you be willing to work for him? Brief Chapter Outline I. Personality A. What Is Personality? (PPT. 4–2) †¢ A dynamic concept †¢ Defined: the sum total of ways in which an individual reacts and interacts with others B. Personality Determinants (PPT 4-3) 1. Introduction †¢ Early arguments suggest heredity and environment. Current literature suggests three factors: heredity, environment, and situation. 2. Heredity 3. Environment C. Personality Traits (PPT 4-4) 1. Introduction 2.Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI) (PPTs 4–5 – 4 – 6) †¢ Widely used in practice by major companies. 3. The Big Five Model (PPT 4–7) †¢ Five Basic Dimensions: o Extraversion o Agreeableness o Conscientiousness o Emotional stability o Openness to experience †¢ Research indicates relationships between these personality dimensions and job performance. D. How Do the Big Five Traits Pr edict Behavior? (PPT 4–8) †¢ Research has shown this to be a better framework. †¢ Certain traits have been shown to strongly relate to higher job performance E.Other Personality Traits Relevant to OB (PPT 4–9) 1. Core Self-Evaluation (Self-perspective) (PPT 4–9) †¢ Locus of Control o Internals o Externals †¢ Self-esteem †¢ Directly related to expectations for success 2. Machiavellianism (PPT 4–9) †¢ Individuals high on this dimension—pragmatic, emotional distance, and belief that the ends justify the means 3. Narcissism (PPT 4–9) †¢ Narcissists tend to be selfish and exploitive. 4. Self-Monitoring (PPT 4–10) †¢ Ability to adjust behavior to external, situational factors 5. Risk Taking (PPT 4–10) Managers in large organizations tend toward risk aversiveness. 6. Type A Personality (PPT. 4–11) †¢ A Type A personality is characterized as constant motion, impatient, obsessed with m easuring self-performance; whereas a Type B Personality (PPT 4–11) is more relaxed; does not suffer from a sense of time urgency. 7. Proactive Personality (PPT 4–11) †¢ Create positive change in their environments. †¢ More likely seen as leaders and change agents F. Personality and National Culture †¢ High amount of agreement among individuals in a country †¢ No common personality types for a country I.Values A. Introduction †¢ Values represent basic convictions: (PPT 4–12) o There is a judgmental element of what is right, good, or desirable. o Values have both content and intensity attributes. o Values are not generally fluid and flexible. ? They tend to be relatively stable and enduring. ? A significant portion of the values we hold is established in our early years—from parents, teachers, friends, and others. B. Importance of Values (PPT 4–13) †¢ Values lay the foundation for the understanding of attitudes and motiv ation. †¢ Values generally influence attitudes and behavior. C.Types of Values 1. Rokeach Value Survey (PPTs 4–14 to 4–16) (Exhibit 4–3) †¢ Two sets of values, each set had 18 individual value items: o Terminal values—refer to desirable end-states of existence, the goals that a person would like to achieve during his/her lifetime o Instrumental values—refer to preferable modes of behavior, or means of achieving the terminal values †¢ Several studies confirm that the RVS values vary among groups. o People in the same occupations or categories tend to hold similar values. Although there may be overlap among groups, there are some significant differences as well. (Exhibit 4–4) 2. Contemporary Work Cohorts †¢ Different generations hold different work values. o Veterans—entered the workforce from the early 1940s through the early 1960s. o Boomers—entered the workforce during the 1960s through the mid-1980s. o Xer s—began to enter the workforce from the mid-1980s. o Nexters—most recent entrants into the workforce. D. Values, Loyalty, and Ethical Behavior (PPT 4–17) †¢ Many people think there has been a decline in business ethics since the late 1970s.The four-stage model of work cohort values might explain this perception. (Exhibit 4–5) †¢ Managers consistently report the action of bosses as the most important factor influencing ethical and unethical behavior in the organization. II. Linking an Individual’s Personality and Values to the Workplace A. Person-Job Fit †¢ Personality-job fit theory (PPTs 4–18 to 4–21) (Exhibit 4–6) o Each personality type has a congruent occupational environment. B. The Person-Organization Fit †¢ People leave organizations that are not compatible with their personalities. Organizational Culture Profile (OCP) o Match individual values to organization’s values. IV. Global Implications A. Personality . B. Values Across Cultures 1. Introduction †¢ Values differ across cultures. 2. Hofstede’s Framework for Assessing Cultures (PPTs 4-22 – 4-28) †¢ One of the most widely referenced approaches for analyzing variations among cultures has been done by Geert Hofstede. o Power distance o Individualism versus collectivism o Masculinity versus femininity o Uncertainty avoidance Long-term versus short-term orientation 3. The GLOBE Framework for Assessing Cultures (Exhibit 4–8) †¢ In 1993, the Global Leadership and Organizational Behavior Effectiveness (GLOBE) began updating this research with data from 825 organizations and 62 countries. †¢ Nine dimensions on which national cultures differ: o Assertiveness o Future orientation o Gender differentiation o Uncertainty avoidance o Power distance o Individualism/collectivism o In-group collectivism o Performance orientation o Humane orientation 4. Implications for OBV. SUMMARY AND IMPLICATI ONS FOR MANAGERS (PPT 4-30) A. Personality ? Conscientiousness is often a major factor for successful employees ? The MBTI can be used to better understand each other ? Managers use the Big Five to view employee personality B. Values ? Values influence attitudes, perceptions, and behaviors ? Values can be measured using the Rokeach Values Survey ? It is important that the values of the employee and the organization match Expanded Chapter Outline Personality A. What Is Personality? Personality is a dynamic concept describing the growth and development of a person’s whole psychological system; it looks at some aggregate whole that is greater than the sum of the parts. †¢ Gordon Allport coined the most frequent used definition: o â€Å"The dynamic organization within the individual of those psychophysical systems that determine his unique adjustments to his environment† †¢ The text defines personality as the sum total of ways in which an individual reacts to and interacts with others. †¢ It is most often described in terms of measurable traits that a person exhibits.B. Personality Determinants 1. Introduction †¢ An early argument centered on whether or not personality was the result of heredity or of environment. o Personality appears to be a result of both influences. o Today, we recognize a third factor—the situation. 4 Situation: 5 Influences the effects of heredity and environment on personality 6 The different demands of different situations call forth different aspects of one’s personality. 7 There is no classification scheme that tells the impact of various types of situations. 8 Situations seem to differ substantially in the constraints they impose on behavior. . Heredity †¢ Heredity refers to those factors that were determined at conception. †¢ The heredity approach argues that the ultimate explanation of an individual’s personality is the molecular structure of the genes, located in the ch romosomes. †¢ Three different streams of research lend some credibility to the heredity argument: o The genetic underpinnings of human behavior and temperament among young children. Evidence demonstrates that traits such as shyness, fear, and distress are most likely caused by inherited genetic characteristics. One hundred sets of identical twins that were separated at birth were studied. Genetics accounts for about 50 percent of the variation in personality differences and over 30 percent of occupational and leisure interest variation. o Individual job satisfaction is remarkably stable over time. This indicates that satisfaction is determined by something inherent in the person rather than by external environmental factors. †¢ Personality characteristics are not completely dictated by heredity. If they were, they would be fixed at birth and no amount of experience could alter them. . Environment †¢ Factors that exert pressures on our personality formation: o The cult ure in which we are raised o Early conditioning o Norms among our family o Friends and social groups †¢ The environment we are exposed to plays a substantial role in shaping our personalities. †¢ Culture establishes the norms, attitudes, and values passed from one generation to the next and create consistencies over time. †¢ The arguments for heredity or environment as the primary determinant of personality are both important. Heredity sets the parameters or outer limits, but an individual’s full potential will be determined by how well he or she adjusts to the demands and requirements of the environment. C. Personality Traits 1. Introduction †¢ Early work revolved around attempts to identify and label enduring characteristics. o Popular characteristics include shy, aggressive, submissive, lazy, ambitious, loyal, and timid. These are personality traits. o The more consistent the characteristic, the more frequently it occurs, the more important it is. Resea rchers believe that personality traits can help in employee selection, job fit, and career development. 2. The Myers-Briggs Type Indicator †¢ One of the most widely used personality frameworks is the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI). †¢ It is a 100-question personality test that asks people how they usually feel or act in particular situations. †¢ Individuals are classified as: o Extroverted or introverted (E or I). o Sensing or intuitive (S or N). o Thinking or feeling (T or F). o Perceiving or judging (P or J). †¢ These classifications are then combined into sixteen personality types.For example: o INTJs are visionaries. They usually have original minds and great drive for their own ideas and purposes. They are characterized as skeptical, critical, independent, determined, and often stubborn. o ESTJs are organizers. They are realistic, logical, analytical, decisive, and have a natural head for business or mechanics. o The ENTP type is a conceptualizer. He or she is innovative, individualistic, versatile, and attracted to entrepreneurial ideas. This person tends to be resourceful in solving challenging problems but may neglect routine assignments. MBTI is widely used in practice. Some organizations using it include Apple Computer, AT&T, Citigroup, GE, 3M Co. and others. 3. The Big Five Model †¢ An impressive body of research supports that five basic dimensions underlie all other personality dimensions. The five basic dimensions are: o Extraversion. Comfort level with relationships. Extroverts tend to be gregarious, assertive, and sociable. Introverts tend to be reserved, timid, and quiet. o Agreeableness. Individual’s propensity to defer to others. High agreeableness people—cooperative, warm, and trusting.Low agreeableness people—cold, disagreeable, and antagonistic. o Conscientiousness. A measure of reliability. A high conscientious person is responsible, organized, dependable, and persistent. Those who score l ow on this dimension are easily distracted, disorganized, and unreliable. o Emotional stability. A person’s ability to withstand stress. People with positive emotional stability tend to be calm, self-confident, and secure. Those with high negative scores tend to be nervous, anxious, depressed, and insecure. o Openness to experience. The range of interests and fascination with novelty.Extremely open people are creative, curious, and artistically sensitive. Those at the other end of the openness category are conventional and find comfort in the familiar. †¢ Research found important relationships between these personality dimensions and job performance. o A broad spectrum of occupations was examined in addition to job performance ratings, training proficiency (performance during training programs), and personnel data such as salary level. o The results showed that conscientiousness predicted job performance for all occupational groups. Individuals who are dependable, reliab le, careful, thorough, able to plan, organized, hardworking, persistent, and achievement-oriented tend to have higher job performance. o Employees higher in conscientiousness develop higher levels of job knowledge. o There is a strong and consistent relationship between conscientiousness and organizational citizenship behavior (OCB). o For the other personality dimensions, predictability depended upon both the performance criterion and the occupational group. o Extroversion predicts performance in managerial and sales positions. Openness to experience is important in predicting training proficiency. D. How Do the Big Five Traits Predict Behavior? †¢ Research has shown relationships between these personality dimensions and job performance. †¢ Employees who score higher for example in conscientiousness, develop higher levels of job knowledge †¢ Extraverts tend to be happier in their jobs and do better in jobs that require significant interpersonal interaction probably b ecause they have better social skills. E. Other Personality Traits Relevant to OB 1. Core Self-Evaluation (Self-perspective) People who have a positive core self-evaluation see themselves as effective, capable, and in control. †¢ People who have a negative core self-evaluation tend to dislike themselves. †¢ Locus of control o A person’s perception of the source of his/her fate is termed locus of control. ? There is not a clear relationship between locus of control and turnover because there are opposing forces at work. o Internals: People who believe that they are masters of their own fate ? Internals, facing the same situation, attribute organizational outcomes to their own actions.Internals believe that health is substantially under their own control through proper habits; their incidences of sickness and, hence, their absenteeism, are lower. ? Internals generally perform better on their jobs, but one should consider differences in jobs. ? Internals search more ac tively for information before making a decision, are more motivated to achieve, and make a greater attempt to control their environment, therefore, internals do well on sophisticated tasks. ? Internals are more suited to jobs that require initiative and independence of action. Externals: People who believe they are pawns of fate ? Individuals who rate high in externality are less satisfied with their jobs, have higher absenteeism rates, are more alienated from the work setting, and are less involved on their jobs than are internals. ? Externals are more compliant and willing to follow directions, and do well on jobs that are well structured and routine and in which success depends heavily on complying with the direction of others. †¢ Self-esteem o Self-esteem—the degree to which people like or dislike themselves. (SE) is directly related to expectations for success. o Individuals with high self-esteem will take more risks in job selection and are more likely to choose un conventional jobs than people with low self-esteem. o The most generalizable finding is that low SEs are more susceptible to external influence than are high SEs. Low SEs are dependent on the receipt of positive evaluations from others. o In managerial positions, low SEs will tend to be concerned with pleasing others. o High SEs are more satisfied with their jobs than are low SEs. 2. Machiavellianism Named after Niccolo Machiavelli, who wrote in the sixteenth century on how to gain and use power. †¢ An individual high in Machiavellianism is pragmatic, maintains emotional distance, and believes that ends can justify means. †¢ High Machs manipulate more, win more, are persuaded less, and persuade others more. †¢ High Mach outcomes are moderated by situational factors and flourish when they interact face-to-face with others, rather than indirectly, and when the situation has a minimum number of rules and regulations, thus allowing latitude for improvisation. High Machs m ake good employees in jobs that require bargaining skills or that offer substantial rewards for winning. 3. Narcissism †¢ Describes a person who has a grandiose sense of self-importance. †¢ They â€Å"think† they are better leaders. †¢ Often they are selfish and exploitive. 4. Self-Monitoring †¢ This refers to an individual’s ability to adjust his or her behavior to external, situational factors. †¢ Individuals high in self-monitoring show considerable adaptability. They are highly sensitive to external cues, can behave differently in different situations, and are capable of presenting striking contradictions between heir public persona and their private self. †¢ Low self-monitors cannot disguise themselves in that way. They tend to display their true dispositions and attitudes in every situation resulting in a high behavioral consistency between who they are and what they do. †¢ The research on self-monitoring is in its infancy, so p redictions must be guarded. Preliminary evidence suggests: o High self-monitors tend to pay closer attention to the behavior of others. o High self-monitoring managers tend to be more mobile in their careers and receive more promotions. High self-monitor is capable of putting on different â€Å"faces† for different audiences. 5. Risk Taking †¢ The propensity to assume or avoid risk has been shown to have an impact on how long it takes managers to make a decision and how much information they require before making their choice. †¢ High risk-taking managers make more rapid decisions and use less information in making their choices. †¢ Managers in large organizations tend to be risk averse; especially in contrast with growth-oriented entrepreneurs. †¢ Makes sense to consider aligning risk-taking propensity with specific job demands. 6. Type A Personality Type A personality is â€Å"aggressively involved in a chronic, incessant struggle to achieve more and mo re in less and less time, and, if required to do so, against the opposing efforts of other things or other persons. ’’ †¢ They are always moving, walking, and eating rapidly, are impatient with the rate at which most events take place, are doing do two or more things at once and cannot cope with leisure time. †¢ They are obsessed with numbers, measuring their success in terms of how many or how much of everything they acquire. †¢ In contrast to the Type A personality is the Type B Personality. Type B’s never suffer from a sense of time urgency with its accompanying impatience. o Type B’s feel no need to display or discuss either their achievements or accomplishments unless such exposure is demanded by the situation. o Type B’s play for fun and relaxation, rather than exhibit their superiority at any cost. o They can relax without guilt. †¢ Type A personality compared to Type B personality o Type A’s operate under moderate to high levels of stress. They subject themselves to continuous time pressure, are fast workers, quantity over quality, work long hours, and are also rarely creative. Type A’s behavior is easier to predict than that of Type B’s. o Do Type A’s differ from Type B’s in their ability to get hired? ? Type A’s do better in job interviews; are more likely to be judged as having desirable traits such as high drive, competence, and success motivation. 7. Proactive Personality †¢ Actively taking the initiative to improve their current circumstances while others sit by passively †¢ Proactives identify opportunities, show initiative, take action, and persevere. †¢ Create positive change in their environment. More likely to be seen as leaders and change agents †¢ More likely to achieve career success F. Personality and National Culture †¢ The five personality factors identified in the Big Five model are found in almost all cross-cultur al studies. †¢ There are no common personality types for a given country. †¢ There are Type A’s in every country, but they tend to be more found in capitalist countries. Values A. Introduction †¢ Values Represent Basic Convictions o A specific mode of conduct or end-state of existence is personally or socially preferable to an opposite or converse mode of onduct or end-state of existence. o They have both content and intensity attributes. o An individual’s set of values ranked in terms of intensity is considered the person’s value system. o Values have the tendency to be stable. o Many of our values were established in our early years from parents, teachers, friends, and others. B. Importance of Values †¢ Values lay the foundation for the understanding of attitudes and motivation. †¢ Values generally influence attitudes and behaviors. We can predict reaction based on understanding values. C.Types of Values (Value Classifications) 1. Roke ach Value Survey (Exhibit 4–3) †¢ This instrument contains two sets of values; each set has 18 value items. o Terminal Values—refer to desirable end states of existence. ? The goals that a person would like to achieve during his/her lifetime o Instrumental Values—refer to preferable modes of behavior. ? Means of achieving the terminal values o Several studies confirm that the RVS values vary among groups. o People in the same occupations or categories tend to hold similar values. Although there may be overlap among groups, there are some significant differences as well. 2. Contemporary Work Cohorts †¢ Different generations hold different work values. o Veterans—entered the workforce from the early 1940s through the early 1960s. o Boomers—entered the workforce during the 1960s through the mid-1980s. o Xers—entered the workforce beginning in the mid-1980s. o Nexters—most recent entrants into the workforce. D. Values, Loyalty, and Ethical Behavior †¢ Many people think there has been a decline in business ethics since the late 1970s. †¢ The four-stage model of work cohort alues might explain this perception (Exhibit 4–5). †¢ Managers consistently report the action of bosses as the most important factor influencing ethical and unethical behavior in organizations. III. Linking an Individual’s Personality and Values to the Workplace A. The Person-Job Fit: †¢ This concern is best articulated in John Holland’s personality-job fit theory. o Holland presents six personality types and proposes that satisfaction and the propensity to leave a job depends on the degree to which individuals successfully match their personalities to an occupational environment.The six personality types are: realistic, investigative, social, conventional, enterprising, and artistic o Each one of the six personality types has a congruent occupational environment. o Vocational Preference Inventory questionnaire contains 160 occupational titles. Respondents indicate which of these occupations they like or dislike; their answers are used to form personality profiles. o The theory argues that satisfaction is highest and turnover lowest when personality and occupation are in agreement. B. The Person-Organization Fit Most important for an organization facing a dynamic and changing environment, and requiring employees who are able to readily change tasks and move fluidly between teams †¢ It argues that people leave jobs that are not compatible with their personalities. †¢ Organizational Culture Profile (OCP) o Individuals have to sort their values in terms of importance. o Forced choice rationale—having to make hard choices that one’s true values become apparent o Match personal values to those of the organization.IV. Global Implications 1. Introduction †¢ Do personality frameworks like the Big Five Model transfer across cultures? There is a surprising amount of agreement across industrialized countries that they do. †¢ Values differ across cultures; therefore, understanding these differences helps to explain and to predict behavior of employees from different countries. One of the most widely referenced approaches for analyzing variations among cultures has been done by Geert Hofstede. 2. Hofstede’s Framework for Assessing Cultures Five value dimensions of national culture: o Power distance: The degree to which people in a country accept that power in institutions and organizations is distributed unequally. o Individualism versus collectivism: Individualism is the degree to which people in a country prefer to act as individuals rather than as members of groups. Collectivism equals low individualism. o Masculinity versus femininity: Masculinity is the degree to which values such as the acquisition of money and material goods prevail. Femininity is the degree to which people value relationships and show sensitivity and concern for others. Uncertainty avoidance: The degree to which people in a country prefer structured over unstructured situations. o Long-term versus short-term orientation: Long-term orientations look to the future and value thrift and persistence. Short-term orientation values the past and present and emphasizes respect for tradition and fulfilling social obligations. †¢ Hofstede Research Findings: o Asian countries were more collectivist than individualistic. o United States ranked highest on individualism. o German and Hong Kong rated high on masculinity. o Russia and The Netherlands were low on masculinity. China and Hong Kong had a long-term orientation. o France and the United States had short-term orientation. 3. The GLOBE Framework for Assessing Cultures †¢ Hofstede’s work is the basic framework for assessing cultures. However, it is nearly 30 years old. In 1993, the Global Leadership and Organizational Behavior Effectiveness (GLOBE) began updating this res earch with data from 825 organizations and 62 countries. †¢ GLOBE Framework for Assessing Cultures (Exhibit 4–8): o Assertiveness: The extent to which a society encourages people to be tough, confrontational, assertive, and competitive versus modest and tender. Future orientation: The extent to which a society encourages and rewards future-oriented behaviors such as planning, investing in the future and delaying gratification. o Gender differentiation: The extent to which a society maximized gender role differences. o Uncertainly avoidance: Society’s reliance on social norms and procedures to alleviate the unpredictability of future events. o Power distance: The degree to which members of a society expect power to be unequally shared. o Individualism/collectivism: The degree to which individuals are encouraged by societal institutions to be integrated into groups within organizations and society. In-group collectivism: The extent to which society’s members take pride in membership in small groups such as their families and circles of close friends, and the organizations where they are employed. o Performance orientation: The degree to which society encourages and rewards group members for performance improvement and excellence. o Humane orientation: The degree to which a society encourages and rewards individuals for being fair, altruistic, generous, caring, and kind to others. †¢ GLOBE Research Findings: o The GLOBE study had extended Hofstede’s work rather than replaced it. It confirms Hofstede’s five dimensions are still valid and provides updated measures of where countries are on each dimension. For example, the United States in the 70s led the world in individualism—today, it is in the mid-ranks of countries. 1. Implications for OB †¢ Twenty years ago organizational behavior had a strong American bias †¢ Many of the studies were completed with only American samples †¢ Now there has been a n increase in cross-cultural research †¢ OB is a global discipline V. SUMMARY AND IMPLICATIONS FOR MANAGERS A. Personality The Big Five provides a meaningful way for managers to examine personality ? Managers should look for employees high on conscientiousness ? Situational factors should be taken into consideration, they do impact personality-job performance ? The MBTI can be used for teams to better understand each other B. Values ? Values influence a person’s attitudes, perceptions and behaviors ? The Rokeach Values Survey can be used to measure an employee’s values ? Employees are often rewarded more often when their personal values match those of the organizationText Exercises |Myth or | | |Science? |†Entrepreneurs Are a Breed Apart† | This statement is true. A review of 23 studies on the personality of entrepreneurs revealed significant differences between entrepreneurs and managers on four of the Big Five: Entrepreneurs scored significantly hig her on conscientiousness, emotional stability, and openness to experience, and they scored significantly lower on agreeableness.Though of course not every entrepreneur achieves these scores, the results clearly suggest that entrepreneurs are different from managers in key ways. A fascinating study of MBA students provides one explanation for how entrepreneurs are different from others. Studying male MBA students with either some or no prior entrepreneurial experience, the authors found that those with prior experience had significantly higher levels of testosterone (measured by taking a saliva swab at the beginning of the study) and also scored higher on risk propensity.The authors of this study concluded that testosterone, because it is associated with social dominance and aggressiveness, energizes individuals to take entrepreneurial risks. Because individual differences in testosterone are 80 percent inherited, this study adds more weight to the conclusion that entrepreneurs are d ifferent from others. What’s the upshot of all this? An individual who is considering a career as an entrepreneur or a business owner might consider how she scores on the Big Five. To the extent that she is high in conscientiousness, emotional stability, and openness and low in agreeableness, such a career might be for her.Class Exercise Place the students in teams of five. 1. Have one set of teams brainstorm specific traits essential to being a good professor. 2. Another set of teams should brainstorm job tasks handled by a good professor. 3. Have the teams record their criteria on the board. 4. As a class, create one set of five traits and five tasks for a professorial position. 5. Ask students what questions or teaching artifacts students would ask or review in matching professorial candidates to their jobs. International [pic] A Global PersonalityDetermining which employees will succeed on overseas business assignments is often difficult for an organization’s manag ers because the same qualities that predict success in one culture may not in another. Researchers, however, are naming personality traits that can help managers home in on which employees would be suited for foreign assignments. Organizational psychologist Robert Hogan, for example, states that emotional maturity, remaining composed under pressure, and being comfortable with uncertainty are traits that breed success in most jobs, and these traits may be especially valuable for the overseas employee to possess.In addition, according to the Center for Global Assignments (CGA), successful global executives tend to be open-minded and imaginative, and they also enjoy talking and networking with others. Other traits that have been linked to overseas employment success include curiosity and risk tolerance. Viewed from the perspective of the Big Five, characteristics such as open-mindedness and curiosity are similar to the Big Five trait openness to experience, while characteristics such a s enjoying talking with others and networking resemble the Big Five trait extraversion.For the overseas employee, being more open and extraverted may be particularly helpful in breaching communication barriers and cultivating trust, which in turn promotes cooperation. What is the ultimate upshot for organizations? When it comes to choosing employees for global assignments, personality can make a difference. Source: Based on J. E. Fernandez, â€Å"The Making of a Global Executive,† Journal of Business Strategy 24, no. 5, (2003), pp. 36–38. Class Exercise While the chapter does not contain this element, you may wish to choose from one of the other instructional resources provided for this chapter. [pic] IN THE [pic] Are U.S. Values Different? People in the United States are used to being criticized. After all, it was more than a century ago when the Irish playwright George Barnard Shaw wrote, â€Å"Americans adore me and will go on adoring me until I say something nice about them. † But as a result of the Iraq War and the fact that the United States is the world’s lone remaining superpower, its citizens are taking unprecedented criticism abroad. One critic sneered, â€Å"The American pursuit of wealth, size, and abundance—as material surrogates for happiness—is aesthetically unpleasing and ecologically catastrophic. † And many Europeans think that U. S. dults are obsessed with work. Some have even argued that the United States and Europe are becoming increasingly polarized. Overall, the United States is wealthier than Europe and has higher productivity. But what’s wrong with that? Well, some stats are not very positive. For example, compared to Europe, the United States is much more violent; it has 685 prisons for every 100,000 people, compared to 87 in the European Union. The United States has also increasingly seemed to reward power with money. For example, in 1980, the average CEO in the United States ea rned 40 times the annual income of the average manufacturing employee.Today, that ratio is 475:1! By comparison, the ratios are 24:1 in the U. K. , 15:1 in France, and 13:1 in Sweden. Finally, the United States contains 5 percent of the world’s population, but it is responsible for 25 percent of the world’s greenhouse gas output—which is, many scientists argue, responsible for global warming. Values may account for some of these differences. For example, in a study of people in 14 countries, those in the United States were more likely than others to see natural resources as elements at their disposal. And compared to Europeans, U. S. dults are more likely to believe that war is often necessary, that it is right to kill to defend property, and that physical punishment of children is necessary. Do you think U. S. values are an underlying factor behind some of these social phenomena? Or is this academic U. S. bashing? Based on: T. Judt, â€Å"Europe vs. America,â €  New York Review of Books, February 20, 2005, www. nybooks. com/articles/17726; P. W. Schultz and L. Zelezny, â€Å"Values as Predictors of Environmental Attitudes: Evidence for Consistency Across 14 Countries,† Journal of Environmental Psychology, September 1999, pp. 255–265; and A. McAlister, P. Sandstrom, P.Puska, A. Veijo, R. Chereches, and L. Heidmets, â€Å"Attitudes Towards War, Killing, and Punishment of Children Among Young People in Estonia, Finland, Romania, the Russian Federation, and the USA,† Bulletin of the World Health Organization 79, no. 5 (2001), pp. 382–387. Class Exercise This class exercise can help introduce the concept of â€Å"ethnocentrism† as it relates to value systems. It also may elicit some significant debate concerning the value system of â€Å"Americans† and others in the global economy. It is important to attempt to have students examine the arguments from a global perspective. 1. Have students break in to small groups.In each group have students examine each of the issues raised in the vignette (e. g. work obsession, crime and violence, executive compensation, utilization of natural resources). 2. Have students develop a value-based argument defending the position of the United States in terms of each of the issues. 3. Have students then take the same issues from a different global perspective. For example, you may wish to assign each group as a different â€Å"culture† (e. g. China, Japan, European Union, etc). 4. Have students report to the class. You may have an opportunity to encourage interesting debate of the issues.You should also incorporate Hofstede’s and GLOBE’s cultural analyses in the discussion. Point ( ( Counterpoint Traits Are Powerful Predictors of Behavior[iii] Point The essence of trait approaches in OB is that employees possess stable personality characteristics that significantly influence their attitudes toward, and behavioral reactions to , organizational settings. People with particular traits tend to be relatively consistent in their attitudes and behavior over time and across situations. Of course, trait theorists recognize that all traits are not equally powerful. They tend to put them into one of three categories.Cardinal traits are those so strong and generalized that they influence every act a person performs. Primary traits are generally consistent influences on behavior, but they may not show up in all situations. Finally, secondary traits are attributes that do not form a vital part of the personality but come into play only in particular situations. For the most part, trait theories have focused on the power of primary traits to predict employee behavior. Trait theorists do a fairly good job of meeting the average person’s face-validity test. Think of friends, relatives, and acquaintances you have known for a number of years.Do they have traits that have remained essentially stable over time? Most o f us would answer that question in the affirmative. If Cousin Anne was shy and nervous when we last saw her 10 years ago, we would be surprised to find her outgoing and relaxed now. Managers seem to have a strong belief in the power of traits to predict behavior. If managers believed that situations determined behavior, they would hire people almost at random and structure the situation properly. But the employee selection process in most organizations places a great deal of emphasis on how applicants perform in interviews and on tests.Assume you’re an interviewer and ask yourself: What am I looking for in job candidates? If you answered with terms such as conscientious, hardworking, persistent, confident, and dependable, you’re a trait theorist. Counterpoint Few people would dispute that there are some stable individual attributes that affect reactions to the workplace. But trait theorists go beyond that generality and argue that individual behavior consistencies are widespread and account for much of the differences in behavior among people.There are two important problems with using traits to explain a large proportion of behavior in organizations. First, organizational settings are strong situations that have a large impact on employee behavior. Second, individuals are highly adaptive, and personality traits change in response to organizational situations. It has been well known for some time that the effects of traits are likely to be strongest in relatively weak situations and weakest in relatively strong situations.Organizational settings tend to be strong situations because they have rules and other formal regulations that define acceptable behavior and punish deviant behavior, and they have informal norms that dictate appropriate behaviors. These formal and informal constraints minimize the effects of personality traits. POINT/COUNTERPOINT (Continued) By arguing that employees possess stable traits that lead to cross-situational consiste ncies in behaviors, trait theorists are implying that individuals don’t really adapt to different situations.But there is a growing body of evidence that an individual’s traits are changed by the organizations that individual participates in. If the individual’s personality changes as a result of exposure to organizational settings, in what sense can that individual be said to have traits that persistently and consistently affect his or her reactions to those very settings? Moreover, people typically belong to multiple organizations that often include very different kinds of members. And they adapt to those different situations.Instead of being the prisoners of a rigid and stable personality framework, as trait theorists propose, people regularly adjust their behavior to reflect the requirements of various situations. Class Exercise 1. Divide the class into two groups—one group to take on the issues raised in Point, the other group to take on the issues r aised in Counterpoint. You may want to divide each half into smaller groups to enable all class members to participate in the group’s discussions. 2. Ask the class to act as an organization’s management team.Their job is make a recommendation as to what types of testing they will use in their organization when selecting employees for hire or promotion using the issues assigned by the Point/Counterpoint arguments. Which types of testing will be used and why? (You may want to give students time to do some research—either Internet or Library—on this topic. There are several exercises in the Exploring OB Topics on the World Wide Web section at the end of this chapter. ) 3. Have students present their recommendations to the class and make a decision as to what is the best argument for testing, type of test, etc.What gains do they expect as a result of the testing? 4. Have them list the recommendations and benefits on the board for the class to evaluate during the discussion. 5. You may want them to research the cost of implementing these tests in an organization. Does testing cost of testing offset the benefits? Questions for Review 1. What is personality? How do we typically measure it? What factors determine personality? Answer: Personality is the sum total of ways in which an individual reacts and interacts with others, the measurable traits a person exhibits. It is typically measured using self-reporting surveys.Observer-ratings surveys that provide an independent assessment of personality is often better predictors. Personality seems to be the result of both hereditary and environmental factors. Heredity refers to factors determined at conception: physical stature, facial attractiveness, gender, temperament, muscle composition and reflexes, energy level, and bio-rhythms 2. What is the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI), and what does it measure? Answer: The Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI), is the most widely used instrument in th e world to determine personality attributes.Participants are classified on four axes to determine one of 16 possible personality types. It measures – extroverted/introverted; sensing/intuitive; thinking/feeling; and judging/perceiving attributes. 3. What are the Big Five personality traits? Answer: Extroversion – Sociable, gregarious, and assertive Agreeableness – Good-natured, cooperative and trusting Conscientiousness – responsible, dependable and organized Emotional Stability – calm, self-confident versus negative and depressed Openness to experience – Curious, imaginative 4. How do the Big Five traits predict work behavior?Answer: Certain traits have been shown to strongly relate to higher job performance: For example, highly conscientious people develop more job knowledge, exert greater effort, and have better performance. Other Big Five Traits also have implications for work. Emotional stability is related to job satisfaction. Extrover ts tend to be happier in their jobs and have good social skills. Open people are more creative and can be good leaders. Agreeable people are good in social settings. 5. Besides the Big Five, what other personality traits are relevant to OB?Answer: Core Self-Evaluation – The degree to which people like or dislike themselves – Positive self-evaluation leads to higher job performance Machiavellianism – A pragmatic, emotionally distant power-player who believes that ends justify the means. High Machs are manipulative, win more often, and persuade more than they are persuaded. They flourish when they have direct interaction, and work with minimal rules and regulations Narcissism – depicted by an arrogant, entitled, self-important person who needs excessive admiration.Predictably, they are less effective in their jobs. Self-monitoring, the ability to adjust behavior and risk-taking, the ability to take chances are traits that are also relevant to OB. 6. What ar e values, why are they important, and what is the difference between terminal and instrumental values? Answer: Values are basic convictions on how to conduct yourself or how to live your life that is personally or socially preferable – â€Å"How To† live life properly.They are important because they provide understanding of the attitudes, motivation, and behavior, they influence our perception of the world around us, they represent interpretations of â€Å"right† and â€Å"wrong† and they Imply that some behaviors or outcomes are preferred over others. The difference between terminal and instrumental values is as follows: Terminal Values are desirable end-states of existence; the goals that a person would like to achieve during his or her lifetime.Instrumental Values are preferable modes of behavior or means of achieving one’s terminal values. 7. Do values differ across generations? How so? Answer: Yes, values differ considerably across generations . Dominant work values for Veterans entering the workforce in the 19502 or early 1960s are hard-working, conservative, conformity and loyalty to the organization. In contrast, the Nexters in the workforce from 2000 to the present are confident, value financial success are self-reliant and loyal to both self and relationships. 8. Do values differ across cultures?How so? Answer: Yes. According to Hofstede and the GLOBE Project, there are a number of values that differ across cultures: Hofstede’s Framework for assessing culture includes five value dimensions: †¢ Power Distance †¢ Individualism vs. Collectivism †¢ Masculinity vs. Femininity †¢ Uncertainty Avoidance †¢ Long-term vs. Short-term Orientation When these variables are measured, countries vary considerably such as the U. S. ranking #1 in individualism while Colombia ranks 49th. Experiential Exercise WHAT ORGANIZATIONAL CULTURE DO YOU PREFER?THE ORGANIZATIONAL CULTURE PROFILE (OCP) CAN HELP ASSES S WHETHER AN INDIVIDUAL’S VALUES MATCH THE ORGANIZATION’S. THE OCP HELPS INDIVIDUALS SORT THEIR CHARACTERISTICS IN TERMS OF IMPORTANCE, WHICH INDICATES WHAT A PERSON VALUES. 1. Working on your own, complete the OCP below. 2. Your instructor may ask you the following questions individually or as group of three or four students (with a spokesperson appointed to speak to the class for each group): a. What were your most preferred and least preferred values? Do you think your most preferred and least preferred values are similar to those of other class or group members? . Do you think there are generational differences in the most preferred and least preferred values? c. Research has shown that individuals tend to be happier, and perform better, when their OCP values match those of their employer. How important do you think a â€Å"values match† is when you’re deciding where you want to work? Ethical Dilemma Hiring Based on Body Art Leonardo’s Pizza in Gainesville, Florida, regularly employs heavily tattooed workers. Tina Taladge and Meghan Dean, for example, are covered from their shoulders to their ankles in colorful tattoos.So many of the employees at Leonardo’s sport tattoos that body art could almost be a qualification for the job. Many employers, however, are not that open to tattoos. Consider Russell Parrish, 29, who lives near Orlando, Florida, and has dozens of tattoos on his arms, hands, torso, and neck. In searching for a job, Parrish walked into 100 businesses, and in 60 cases, he was refused an application. â€Å"I want a career,† Parrish says, â€Å"I want same the shot as everybody else. † Parrish isn’t alone. Many employers, including Walt Disney World, GEICO, SeaWorld, the U. S.Postal Service, and Wal-Mart, have policies against visible tattoos. A survey of employers revealed that 58 percent indicated that they would be less likely to hire someone with visible tattoos or body piercings . â€Å"Perception is everything when it comes to getting a job,† says Elaine Stover, associate director of career services at Arizona State University. â€Å"Some employers and clients could perceive body art negatively. † However, other employers—such as Bank of America, Allstate, and IBM—allow tattoos. Bank of America goes so far as to have a policy against using tattoos as a factor in hiring decisions.Policies toward tattoos vary because, legally, employers can do as they wish. As long as the rule is applied equally to everyone (it would not be permissible to allow tattoos on men but not on women, for example), policies against tattoos are perfectly legal. Though not hiring people with tattoos is discrimination, â€Å"it's legal discrimination,† said Gary Wilson, a Florida employment lawyer. Thirty-six percent of those aged 18 to 25, and 40 percent of those aged 26 to 40, have at least one tattoo, whereas only 15 percent of those over 40 do, ac cording to a fall 2006 survey by the Pew Research Center.One study in American Demographics suggested that 57 percent of senior citizens viewed visible tattoos as â€Å"freakish. † Clint Womack, like most other people with multiple tattoos, realizes there's a line that is dangerous to cross. While the 33-year-old hospital worker’s arms, legs, and much of his torso are covered with tattoos, his hands, neck, and face are clear. â€Å"Tattoos are a choice you make,† he says, â€Å"and you have to live with your choices. † Questions 1. Why do some employers ban tattoos while others don’t mind them?Answer:Tattoos or body art is a choice for individuals and a choice for organizations as to whether they are acceptable or not. 2. Is it fair for employers to reject applicants who have tattoos? Is it fair to require employees, if hired, to conceal their tattoos? Answer: Yes to both questions. Fairness is determined by and based on the policies of the organiz ation. As long as they are applied consistently, the organization has the right to determine whether or not tattoos, visible or otherwise are allowed. To avoid any discriminatory issues, whatever policy is in place must be administered fairly. . Should it be illegal to allow tattoos to be a factor at all in the hiring process? Answer: No. Many factors contribute to the hiring process including appearance. An organization has the right to determine the image of their respective company. Just as an organization establishes its culture, the employees reflect the reputation of the company. Legislation on tattoos would impair the organizations’ right to choose their own employees. Sources: R. R. Hastings, â€Å"Survey: The Demographics of Tattoos and Piercings,† HRWeek, February 2007, www. shrm. org; and H.Wessel, â€Å"Taboo of Tattoos in the Workplace,† Orlando (Florida) Sentinel, May 28, 2007, www. tmcnet. com/usubmit/2007/05/28/2666555. htm> Case Incident 1 THE R ISE OF THE NICE CEO? If asked to describe the traits of an effective CEO, most people would probably use adjectives such as driven, competitive, and tough. While it’s clear that some hard-nosed CEOs, like Blackstone chief executive Stephen Schwarzman (see the chapter opener), are successful, recently some authors have suggested that being â€Å"nice† is really important in today’s workplace, even in the CEO suite.In a recent book titled The No A–hole Rule: Building a Civilized Workplace and Surviving One That Isn't, Stanford management professor Robert Sutton argues that getting along well with others is important to the successful functioning of organizations. Many companies, such as Google, have developed policies to weed out those who habitually behave in an uncivil manner. Lars Dalgaard, CEO of SuccessFactors, a business software company, identifies himself as a recovering Fortune 500 â€Å"a–hole. † Now, Dalgaard has implemented a stric t â€Å"no a–hole† rule in his company.Job interviews are lengthy and feature probing questions designed to uncover any browbeating tendencies. Last year, Dalgaard took candidates vying for a chief financial officer vacancy to lunch at a local restaurant to see how they treated the wait staff. Some got a free lunch but nothing more. When managers and employees are hired, they get a welcome letter from Dalgaard that spells out 15 corporate values, the last of which is â€Å"I will not be an a–hole. † Although it’s not clear whether they’ve read Sutton’s book, some CEOs of Fortune 500 companies do seem to project the image of a â€Å"kinder, gentler CEO. Let’s consider three examples, all of whom were proteges of Jack Welch when he was CEO of General Electric (GE) and of whom were candidates to be his successor: Bob Nardelli, James McNerney, and Jeff Immelt. Bob Nardelli, former CEO, Home Depot. When Bob Nardelli wasn’t c hosen to be CEO of GE, he demanded to know why. Didn’t he have the best numbers? His bitterness was palpable, say GE insiders. When Nardelli became CEO of Home Depot, in his first few months on the job, he became notorious for his imperious manner and explosive temper.At one meeting, he yelled, â€Å"You guys don’t know how to run a f—ing business. † When Nardelli was fired as CEO in 2006, it was due to a combination of factors, including Home Depot’s lackluster stock price, but his abrasive personality played no small part. BusinessWeek wrote: â€Å"With the stock price recently stuck at just over 40, roughly the same as when Nardelli arrived 6 years ago, he could no longer rely on other sterile metrics to assuage the quivering anger his arrogance provoked within every one of his key constituencies: employees, customers, and shareholders. † James McNerney, CEO, Boeing. These are heady days at Boeing, which commands record levels of new orde rs and dominates its European rival Airbus as never before. Most CEOs would take credit for this success. Not James McNerney, who gives the credit to Boeing’s engineers and employees. â€Å"I view myself as a value-added facilitator here more than as someone who's crashing through the waves on the bridge of a frigate,† he says. A former GE colleague compared Nardelli and McNerney, saying, â€Å"Jim’s problems have been as tough, or tougher, than the ones that Bob had to face. But he has tried to solve them in a much more pleasant way.The guy is loved over there at Boeing. † Jeff Immelt, CEO, General Electric. – Although Jeff Immelt is the first to point out that the nickname â€Å"Neutron Jack† for his predecessor Jack Welch was misleading, and that the differences between him and Welch are not as dramatic as some claim, Immelt is noted for his calm demeanor and trusting approach. In speaking of his approach, he said, â€Å"I want to believ e the best in terms of what people can do. And if you want to make a growth culture, you've got to have a way to nurture people and not make them fight so goddamn hard to get any idea through the door. †Questions 1. Do you think Sutton is wrong and that the contrasting fortunes, and personalities, of Nardelli, McNerney, and Immelt are coincidental? Why or why not? Answer: No, Sutton is correct. Interpersonal skills and the ability to develop relationships with people is increasingly more important in today’s economy. The hard line, command and control style of management is no longer as effective as maybe it once was. Nardelli was fired undoubtedly because of the stock price but also because of his abrasive personality. 2. Do you think the importance of being â€Å"nice† varies by industry or type of job?How so? Answer: No, the importance of being nice is based on personality and philosophy. Treating people with respect and trust is universal across industries an d jobs. â€Å"Nice â€Å" also does not mean that the person is a welcome mat, but rather the person has a belief in the golden rule of treating people appropriately and the results will follow. 3. How comfortable would you be working in a culture like that of SuccessFactors, where a certain level of â€Å"niceness† is part of the job description? Answer: This may vary by student, but companies should have core values by which all employees should abide.Teamwork and building relationships are paramount in successful companies so proper treatment of others should be a given. 4. Do you think being â€Å"nice† is the same as the Big Five trait of agreeableness? If so, do you think companies should screen out those who score low on agreeableness? Answer: Agreeableness can be compliant and conforming. Companies also need free and innovative thinkers. This factor in terms of performance is important when applied to lower levels of deviant behavior. Nice may be defined as a greeable but you can be nice and still disagree in a polite and respectful way.Companies should pay attention to this trait although it should not solely be used as a screening mechanism. 5. Earlier we discussed the

Child Labour Essay

Institute of Communication Studies Punjab University, Lahore Content 1: Introduction 2: Strategies/Plans 3: What can you Do? 4: Target Audience 5: Communication Mode 6: Conclusion 7: Bibliography Introduction Definition of child labour The Article 1 of the United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child defines a child as anyone below the age of 18.â€Å"Child labour† is often defined as work that deprives children of their childhood, their potential and their dignity, and that is harmful tophysical and mental development. It refers to work that: * interferes with their schooling by: depriving them of the * opportunity to attend school, obliging them to leave school * prematurely or requiring them to attempt to combine * school attendance with excessively long and heavy work. Forms of child labour Child labour exists in many forms. Sometimes it can be easily observed; sometimes it is hidden from your view. Here is a list of different forms of child labour that includes some of the most widespread forms and some of the worst forms. However, this is not a complete list of all existing forms. Domestic work: Very common and sometimes seen as acceptable, it happens in the family home or outside the home. When domestic work is outside the home, children – almost always girls – work very long hours, have no chance to go to school and are isolated from their family and friends. Agricultural work: A lot of working children are found in agriculture. They often work on the family farm or with the whole family, as a unit, for an employer. Work in industries:   This work can be regular or casual, legal or illegal, as part of the family or by the child on his own for an employer. It includes carpet weaving, gemstone polishing, making garments, chemicals, glassware, fireworks, matches or a range of other products. These tasks expose the children to hazardous chemicals that can lead to poisoning, respiratory and skin diseases, radiant heat, fire and explosions, eyesight and hearing damage cuts, burns and even death. Work in mines and quarries: Child labour is used in small scale mines in many countries. They work long hours without adequate protection and training. Child miners suffer from physical strain, fatigue and disorders of the muscular and skeletal systems. Slavery and forced labour: It is most commonly found in rural areas. It is also frequently linked to the oppression of ethnic minorities and indigenous peoples. Children are often also drawn into armed conflict, forced to be soldiers or to work for armed forces. Prostitution and child trafficking: It is one of the worst forms of child labour. The dangers faced by children are extreme and range from moral corruption to sexually transmitted diseases to death. Work in the informal economy: This includes a whole range of activities such as shoe cleaning, begging, pulling rickshaws, selling newspapers, or collecting rubbish. Some forms are very easily observed while others are hidden from public view. Activities often take place on the streets but also include domestic work. Strategies Participate in the World Day Against Child Labour In 2002, the International Labour Organization (ILO) launched the first World Day Against Child Labour, as a way to highlight the worldwide movement to eliminate child labour. The World Day Against Child Labour is celebrated every year, on 12th June. It provides an opportunity to gain the support of governments, employers and workers’ organisations, civil society and others for the campaign against child labour. 2008 activities will focus and raise awareness on â€Å"Education: The Right Response to Child Labour†. The role of education is highlighted because access to free and compulsory education for poor children is crucial to reducing child labour. The most recent ILO Global Report noted that the establishment of universal schooling to the age of 14 or 15 has signaled the effective end of child labour in a number of countries. Contribute to the 12to12 Portal The 12to12 Community Portal is a networking platform for various groups working against child labour (workers, employers, youth, NGOs, schools, medias†¦). The portal derives its name from June 12th, the World Day Against Child Labour. It aims to create a worldwide network of partners mobilized against child labour and to bring attention to the issue of child labour from June 12th to June 12th, until child labourers are finally given the chance to enjoy their rights as children and one day realize their full potential as the adults that they will become. Get involved in the Decent Work agenda The elimination of child labour is an important aspect of Decent Work. Child labour not only prevents children from acquiring the skills and education they need for a better future, it also perpetuates poverty and affects national economies. Withdrawing children from child labour, providing them with education and assisting their families with training and employment opportunities contribute directly to creating decent work for adults. Decent Work, Decent Life Campaign The Decent Work Alliance, which consists of the the ITUC, the European Trade Union Confederation (ETUC), Solidar, the Global Progressive Forum and Social Alert Intertnational, launched the campaign in January 2007 at the World Social Forum. The campaign aims to place Decent Work at the core of development, economic, trade, financial and social policies at the national, regional and international level. A specific Decent Work, Decent Life Campaign for Women was launched, on 8th March 2008, for the 100th anniversary of the International Women’s Day. Spread the message and build partnerships Trade unions are well placed to influence the attitude of workers families, children and their parents. Raise awareness among your members and among adult workers through publicity, posters, campaigns, workshops or educational events. Develop child labour modules in your programmes, organise seminars or conference on child labour or use the mass media. You can also join forces and work with others, such as employers’ organisations, consumers’ organisations, NGOs, child labourers’ families, teachers and social workers. Monitor the development of child labour Trade unions are well placed to undertake information-gathering and to develop appropriate policies and effective plans to take actions against child labour. Trade unions need to gather detailed information. Collecting  local and national data will help to identify where the worst forms of child labour are to be found and will aid in the evaluation of programmes to combat these forms of child labour. You can for example: * Collect stories, pictures and other evidence of children engaged in labour. * Assess the working environment in which children are working. * Record where child labour is being used. * Organize or take part in surveys. Use the supervisory machinery of international institutions If your country has ratified the ILO conventions, your trade union can use the supervisory mechanisms to pressure your government to take adequate and effective measures: * Get the copies of reports submitted by your government to the ILO and feel free to send comments on them to the ILO. * If you think the law and/or practice does not conform to a convention adopted in your country, consider reporting to the ILO and discuss this with the national and/or international organization to which you are affiliated. Participate in tripartite dialogue Tripartite dialogue is central to social stability and to sustainable growth and development. Use the tripartite dialogue between trade unions, government and employers to improve the legislation and its enforcement, and to define policies and programmes to combat the worst forms of child labour and to monitor their implementation. Collective bargaining to combat child labour Collective bargaining is traditional trade union tool and a way for trade unions to interact with employers. It has served the trade union movement well in improving wages and working conditions, and it has proven to be effective in influencing what occurs in the workplace. Promote the international labour standards As explained earlier in this guide, where the international labour standards are respected, children are far more likely to be in school than at work. Promoting the universal respect of international labour standards is then another way to help tackle child labour not only in your country but also in other countries. Pressure your government for an ILO Convention on Domestic Workers Domestic work is one of the most common forms of child labour. The Governing Body of the International Labour Organisation (ILO) decided in March 2008 to include the item â€Å"Decent Work for Domestic Workers† on the agenda of the 99th session (2010) of the International Labour Conference. If your country is represented at the ILO Governing Body, then with your national center, urge your government to support the proposal to draw up an international convention specifically designed to protect domestic workers. e-Campaigning Internet and new technologies are fast, easy and affordable ways to promote your actions as well as to broadcast your message to a wider audience. There are hundreds of ways to get your message known; the only requirements are to be creative and to reach people where they are online. If you have a camera, record videos of your actions and/or a documentary about child labour, put them on Youtube or similar websites. What can you do? Participate in the World Day for Decent Work On October 7 2008, the trade union movement is organizing a World Day for Decent Work (WDDW). This is an unparalleled opportunity for trade unions and  organizations interested in Decent Work all around the world to join a broad global mobilization involving a large number of people and a wide range of activities. There are three themes that you can connect your activities to on the World Day itself: * rights at work * solidarity * ending poverty and inequality Each of these themes can easily be linked with child labour and should fit into your existing child labour activities. Target Audience Help others to eradicate child labour Child labour may not be a big problem in your own country, but there is always the option of helping some other countries. Help your friends in India or in Democratic Republic of Congo or somewhere else to fight against child labour! Direct support to children When it is possible, trade unions and others can provide direct assistance to working children and their parents to help: * remove children from work; * rehabilitate child-labourers and get them into school; and * develop apprenticeships for former child labourers| Demonstrate Demonstrations, when wisely used, are a very good trade union tool. * Organize a march against child labour and finish it outside a politically strategic building. * Use and display banners, flags and other materials in symbolic or strategic places. Your banners can include slogans, signatures, handprints or drawings. * Organize a child labour information stand in the main shopping street of your city or in other busy public places. Get in touch with your regional or national Global March coordinator The Global March Against Child Labour has a presence in more than 140 countries. Coordinating your efforts with the Global March Communication Channels | 11 | | | | | Communication Mode The main communication channels are: 1- television 2-radio 3-newspaper 4-interactive theatre Television Television is one of the most effective media of our times. Several studies have shown the impact of television on everyday lives of the viewers. Television has proved extremely effective as a channel for conveying development messages. ITA can make use of television in two ways. (a): By liaising with the producers of the television programmes that often comment on economic and social issues and by making efforts to convince them to put child domestic labour on their agenda. (b): By working with local cable operators to ensure that telecast video animation prepared for the project. b) Radio Popularity of radio varies in the urban, suburban and rural areas. After losing its glory in the urban areas of the country, it is staging a comeback in the form of FM stations. However, Radio is a popular medium of information and entertainment in the rural areas. Radio provides an effective and cost effective way to reach the target audiences. Some programmes of Radio Lahore are particularly popular with the target audiences. An effort will be made to use these programmes to convey the message. For this purpose the project staff will meet and keep in touch with the presenters of these programmes. The government has issued licenses for FM radio stations all over the country. The communication staff of the  project will keep a close watch on such a development in the area and will try to make the best use of a communication opportunity if it appears in the form of an FM radio in the country. c) Newspapers Newspaper is an effective source of communication in urban centres. It has different categories like magazine or periodical containing public news, reports of events, and commentaries. The Project team will hold forums, seminars and workshop with media personnel to highlight the issue of child domestic labour. The project team will coordinate with editors of newspapers for an effective media campaign in the form of features, articles and dissemination of information. d) Interactive Theatre Street drama has been a popular folk art in the subcontinent for centuries. Traditionally street theatres were used to dramatise mythical and folk romances. Lately, this medium has been modified to address social issues. A strong case can be made for street theatres as a medium of communicating information about sensitive issues. Plays can be adopted to be culturally appropriate and context sensitive. Theatre provides a public and non-intrusive forum for communication. In addition, theatre is an ideal medium to reach target groups and facilitate immediate feedback. Pre-play entertainment can be used to gather the crowd, followed by a street play. The performance is followed by an interactive session in which audience engage in a discussion about the change in the situation portrayed in the play. Advertisement/ Pamphlet *Public Notice* Concluding Remarks The literature on child labor is an illustration of abundance and anarchy. Theoretical writings on the subject are relatively few though one finds theoretical insights in many unexpected papers and books which may be otherwise purely empirical or descriptive. The empirical writings on child labor are numerous but they are usually not founded on any theory. By bringing together68 the main theoretical ideas, this survey hopes to encourage not just further theoretical research but empirical work which is analytically better founded. Also evident from this survey is the fact that there is no unique prescription. Should child labor be banned outright? Should the WTO be given the responsibility of enforcing restrictions on child labor through the use of trade sanctions? Should there be a legal minimum wage for adults so as to make it unnecessary for parents to send their children to work? The answer depends on the context. It was argued in this paper that there is much that can and ought to be done, but the precise policy to be followed depends on the economic milieu for which the prescription is being sought. The main policy divide is between legal interventions and what may be called collaborative interventions, that is, public action which alters the economic environment such that parents of their own accord prefer to withdraw the children from the labor force. The availability of good schools, the provision of free meals, effort to bolster adult wages, are examples of collaborative interventions. We have discussed examples and given arguments to show that such interventions are, in general, a desirable way of curbing child labor. However, many of these actions may not be feasible. There may not be money enough in the government’s coffers to run better schools or to improve the infrastructure which would result in higher adult wages. In such circumstances, should government resort to legal action to restrict child labor? There seems to be some agreement, that some minimal restrictions, such as children being prevented from working in hazardous occupations or under bonded labor conditions, are worth enforcing legally. It is true that one can always think of some circumstance where even such a minimal law will work to the detriment of the child. Bibliography Link1: http://www.ilo.org/ipec/Campaignandadvocacy/wdacl/lang–en/index.htm Link2: http://www.viewpointonline.net/the-solution.html Link3: http://www.goodweave.org/child_labor_campaign Link4: http://www.alliance2015.org/index.php?id=education Link6: http://stopchildlabor.org/?p=2528 Link7: http://www.globalmarch.org/

Alexander the Great Essay

Aristotle is a famous Greek philosopher. Given the name â€Å"The Philosopher,† his ideas were of great importance to Greece during his lifetime. Throughout his life in ancient Greece, he gained popularity because of his many teachings and brilliant logic. His early childhood influenced his scientific thoughts, and his time at the Academy in Athens brought him to the study of philosophy as well. Through many observations, he made large amounts of discoveries that are still proven true in modern times. He wrote over 200 treatises covering various topics such as ethics, biology, psychology, logic and physics. His ideas spread rapidly making him a prominent figure in Western civilization. Not only did Aristotle’s thoughts set the foundation for the development of Greek thought, but also impacted the philosophy and sciences beyond his lifetime. Aristotle was born in a small Greek town called Stagira in 384 BC. His town, like many others in Greece, was one which held non-Greek people. Greece during this time was expanding, and gaining culture. The geography of Greece can be described as rich and fertile. The land was abundant with farmland and ideal for growing grain and fruit. The land also provided space for livestock such as horses, sheep, and cows. This caused the economy to thrive. The main focus of Greece however, particularly in Athens, was politics. Athens’ progression from monarchy to democracy made them more advanced in politics than other civilizations at the time, but the sudden change also weakened Greece. Aristotle would later help to encourage the outlook on life of the majority of Greece and help the overall good of society. Aristotle grew up under the care of his father until his later childhood. His father Nicomachus, was a popular physician at a court in Macedonia, which would later be a strong influence to Aristotle’s career because of his relationship with the king and his family. At the age of ten, Nicomachus passed away and Aristotle was then taken under the care of his uncle named Proxenus. He was raised by him for all of his teenage years. At the age of seventeen, Proxenus sent Aristotle to Athens where he joined Plato’s Academy. Plato was another highly respected Greek philosopher at this time. At the Academy, Aristotle was taught by Plato and he became one of the best students. He studied everything there from astronomy, mathematics, literature, and science. When Plato died, Aristotle left Athens. Being one of the prominent figures in Greece by now, and because of his father’s connections with the court in Macedonia, Aristotle was invited by the king of Macedonia to tutor his son Alexander, who would later become his successor. During Aristotle’s lifetime, he spent a great amount of time thinking about the distinctions between thoughts and actions. This is called logic. He was the first philosopher to study a formal type of logic and his logic remained dominant until the 19th century. He made clear lines between proof and inferences. His type of thinking later became known as Aristotelian logic, named after him. He also set fundamentals for speech, such as sentence structure. Aristotle said, â€Å"Spoken words are the symbols of mental experience, just as written words are the symbols of spoken words† (Farrington, 65). Along with this came the idea of propositions. He taught that each proposition has to have two parts- a subject and predicate. He thought that to make sense of a sentence, something has to be said about a person, or thing. Use of this language helped writers during his time, and is also how people speak today. It seems like common sense to people now, but Aristotle was the first to notice it and that is true of many other observations he made. For example, he believed that the mind and soul are separate from the actual human body. He also believed that humans’ souls still existed after they died. At the time, it set ideas about the afterlife for many people in Greece. His teachings encouraged people to believe in a good life after death. His logic was very complex, which made him a leader in philosophy during his lifetime. His logic also coincides with his ideas about philosophy. One of Aristotle’s major accomplishments during his lifetime was impacting the study of philosophy. He was the founder of Western thought, and his philosophical thoughts are still studied widely in today’s society. His beliefs on philosophy covered various subjects but mainly ethics and politics. The study of ethics is involved with well-being and how people should best live their lives. Ethics addresses individuals rather than a whole community. He taught that humans main goal in life is to reach happiness. He also believed that life should ultimately be about doing what is best to be fully content. He believed in temperance, and says that unlimited wealth is not needed in life. To have an enjoyable life, he believed that wealth is an obstacle to being happy, and people cannot want it too much. This way of thinking was popular because people liked the idea of being happy. His beliefs influenced some of the best medieval scholars, who also believed in the overall good of humans. As for politics, Aristotle examined the growth of society and came to the conclusion that people should work for the common good of their community, and work towards maximum success. To obtain a successful way of life for all people in the community, laws and rules are required. Aristotle wrote, â€Å"‘Youth will not receive a proper ethical training unless brought up under right laws†¦ Speaking generally, we need laws to cover the whole of life’† (Farrington, 88). This quote is an example of one of the many ideas that influenced the philosophy of whole communities. Even today’s society cannot survive without law. He believed that to achieve a civilness, people must fulfill their responsibilities for the good of the whole. â€Å"He sought intelligible definitions of the virtues and employed in the quest the method of induction† (Farrington, 6). This means that he wanted to prove that society was able to thrive with showing high virtue. His philosophy was later named after him, as Aristotelian philosophy. His basic thoughts about life and the Aristotelian philosophy and logic still remains relevant today all over the world. Not only did Aristotle set the philosophical foundation for Greece, but also had an impact on the sciences. His study of biology is important, because it gives people an idea of the history of science. At the Academy, Aristotle had a major interest in anatomy and examined the cycle of the life of man and animals. Through experiments and observations, he made many conclusions. Aristotle dissected about fifty animals in his lifetime and studied over 500 different species of animals, making many discoveries about living things. â€Å"Aristotle thought of a living thing’s inherent potentialities as guiding and controlling what it becomes in its process of growth and development† (Adler, 47). He noticed that species inherit characteristics from their parents, similar to DNA, which is proven today. Aristotle taught that the mind was separate from the rest of the body, and that the mind was not a physical feature. He also distinguished mammals from non-mammals. In his biological research, he focused on mechanical causation as well. He distinguishes the differences between mechanical and chemical changes. Another discovery Aristotle made before modern times even proved it is the ladder of nature. He came to the conclusion that plants are the least complex living thing and humans are the most complex. In society today, that is called a food chain. His order of society remained prevalent for centuries after his death in the West. His thoughts on nature set guidelines for the progress of biology for the future, as well the fundamentals of physical science. The study of physics is one of Aristotle’s main contributions to Western civilization, and to the modern world. His thoughts on physics were originally provoked by earlier scientists, but Aristotle created his own ideas that disagreed with former scientist’s thoughts. He made major improvements on previous knowledge. â€Å"He is conscious of measuring himself against the older thinkers and refers to them mainly in order to disagree with them or at least, to make clear where he has done better† (Farrington, 72). His ideas to science are primary today. One of the major concepts adopted by later scholars that Aristotle discovered was his laws of motion. He taught that the heavier the object is, the faster it will fall, and that the speed of objects falling depends on the density of the surroundings its falling through. For example, a rock falling through a river will be slowed down by the water. He also said that the speed of an object depends on the force being applied to it. For instance, if you stop pushing an object, the object will stop moving as well. Aside from motion, he also studied substances. He noticed the difference between physical mixtures and chemical mixtures. He discovered that when two ingredients are joined together, it creates a new substance, or chemical change. Aristotle also created four forms, or causes of matter. The first is material cause, which explains the chemical and physical appearance of an object, or what is it made out of. The second is formal cause, and this pertains to the characteristics of an object, or what it will develop into. The third cause is called efficient cause. Efficient cause explains how a change is made when objects are in motion, similar to the idea of kinetic energy which is a main principle in science today. The last cause is called final cause, which analyzes why something exists. His four causes are extremely relevant throughout history because they explain the basics of why things are the way they are. Aristotle’s works in physics also involve the study of the Earth.. He taught that the Earth is made of four elements- earth, water, fire, and air. His approach to the basics of matter differs from Plato’s thoughts on what matter consists of because Aristotle relied more on his senses from actual things. Aristotle’s thoughts were more realistic. He studied how his four elements reacted with cold, wet, hot, and dry things. It provided a better understanding of the natural world. Aristotle influenced many people during his lifetime, but one of the most important people to history that he taught was Alexander the Great, who grew up to become one of the greatest military leaders in history. As mentioned earlier, Aristotle’s father was a personal physician to the king of Macedon. When the king decided his son needed a better education, he picked Aristotle because of his connection to the royal family, and he also came to the realization that Aristotle was one of the greatest intellectual leaders in Greece. During his time teaching, Alexander showed many interests in science and medicines. When Alexander invaded Asia, he brought a number of botanists and zoologists, and together they discovered new species. Aristotle also taught Alexander how to be a good public speaker, and how to debate. He taught him poetry, which Alexander had a big interest in. While studying poetry, Alexander even considered one of the gods in Greek poetry as his role model. Aristotle greatly impacted Alexander’s thoughts on ethics and politics as well. He taught Alexander to love all things Greek. He thought that the non-Greeks that were settling should be enslaved, and discouraged Alexander to accept the new people. Alexander had already been skeptical about Persians, and Aristotle’s advice encouraged this thought. Aristotle also wanted Alexander to have self-control and self honor, which helped Alexander to focus on what he needed to do to gain success not only for himself, but for Greece as a whole, coinciding with the type of philosophy that Aristotle believed in. What Alexander learned during this time with Aristotle he took with him on all of his journeys to conquer surrounding lands. He ultimately conquered most of the known world at that time, and united Greece by the young age of twenty-five. Aristotle provided him with the knowledge and skills to become one of the greatest leaders of all time. Without having Aristotle as a teacher, Alexander may not have been as effective in expanding Greece, which could have led to changing the course of history. The impacts that Aristotle had on the philosophy and sciences during his time was great, and the scientific and philosophic world is still learning from him today. His intellect led him to influence every major subject in the ancient world. His type of philosophy gave people a way to manage their problems, and gave them different ways to look at the world. His ideas reinforced people’s faith yet also supported new ideas about faith. In medieval times, his philosophy was used by the majority of the population. It set the basis for medieval scholasticism, which was the philosophy used throughout the middle ages. His philosophy was rediscovered during the beginning of modern scholarship. His philosophy was rediscovered in the late Middle Ages because it pertained to the values of Christianity. His works were also studied by pre-Renaissance scholars, who were some of the greatest in the world. Pope Silvester II advanced his logic by studying Aristotle’s thoughts and influenced him as pope of the Roman Catholic Church. His writings were so successful that they have been translated into dozens of languages and studied by scholars after his death, and even today. As for science, Aristotle was one of the biggest contributors to the growth of the biology and physics during his time. He introduced scientific theories that no one ever studied in the ancient world. By studying animals, he increased the number of animal species, and explained the growth and development of animals, which even led to many discoveries in human anatomy. His contributions were so great that without his research, Europe’s scientific development would be very delayed. Aristotle also tutored one of the most successful leaders who managed to conquer more than half of the known world. Aristotle’s intelligent mind helped to make the ancient world flourish. The underlying reason to why Aristotle was so successful as a philosopher is because he was one of the first to study logic. He studied real life unlike philosophers such as Plato. This is emphasized in a famous Renaissance painting called The School of Athens which portrays an image of Plato pointing upwards, representing his study of the heavens. Aristotle is pointing downwards, representing his study of Earth. His teachings seemed logical to the people of his time because he believed knowledge should be obtained by observation and reasoning, and this made him very popular. Although much of Aristotle’s work was rediscovered during the late Middle Ages and Renaissance, he was incorrect in some areas. For example, he was incorrect about the placement of the Earth in outer space. â€Å"He believed terrestrial elements rise from or fell toward the center of the Earth, which is also the center of the universe†¦ and everything revolves around the Earth† (Langford, 25). The first person to realize Aristotle was wrong was Galileo. He discovered that planets revolve around a physical center other than Earth by studying the moon phases of Jupiter and Venus. He had proved Aristotle wrong. This caused problems with the Church because the christians were so dedicated to Aristotle’s philosophy. They believed that there were no differences between his philosophy and Christianity. When Galileo started to prove Aristotle’s science wrong, people began to believe that Christianity was wrong. This later led to the loss of Roman Catholic authority. Aristotle’s teachings in philosophy was one of his biggest contributions to the world because his philosophical ideas managed to impact the faith of Christianity and also the power of the Church.. â€Å"He was called â€Å"Ille Philosophus† (the philosopher) by his medieval followers, and his work was discussed as the eternal truth† (â€Å"Aristotle of Stagirus†). The Greek philosopher Aristotle was called â€Å"The Philosopher† for a reason. In his lifetime, he made numerous discoveries, wrote hundreds of works, influenced scholars in the middle ages, and taught one of the greatest conquerors in the world. He directly influenced the philosophy of ancient civilizations, and by dedicating his life to his studies and experiments, he set the fundamentals of science. Overall, he built the basis of the philosophy and sciences during his lifetime and beyond.

German Civilization and Expressionism Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

German Civilization and Expressionism - Essay Example The essay "German Civilization and Expressionism " will examine the evolution of the Expressionist movement in film, and how this influence has impacted the world in terms of visual arts. As the film attracted a large audience in the U.S. and France, it became imperative to comprehend the nature of the Expressionist movement that had taken over Germany. It became clear that film could only be classified as art if the film’s image could be differentiated from pragmatic realism. Expressionism in film has the uncanny ability to rework and alter realism or reality. This is what the German film did in the 1920s, enabling the film industry to construct and create an emblematic world, which was completely separated from what is seen in everyday life. The influential power of the film, and as such the Expressionist movement, was brought out in the non-repetition of the world as seen every day. The general characteristics of Expressionism can be used to relate to Wiene’s film, w hich came at a time when Germany had already faced defeat during the First World War. It was at a time when the region was faced with poverty, discord, and anger among its people. Expressionism was used as a means to describe the mentality that most people had about the region. The notable themes of horror, insanity, and death in the film; The Cabinet of Caligari, are just but examples of the way the film was influential in the evolution of film at that point in Germany’s history. There is a perverted and warped perception of the world.

Should robots be given the same rights as human Essay

Should robots be given the same rights as human - Essay Example tties of their life to make it easier and accelerate in a supersonic velocity with three laws of robotics injected within the mechanisms of robots so that they cannot surpass the superiority of the humans, their creator. The three laws of robotics goes with the convention that a) A robot will not injure a human being or, will not allow a human being to come to harm through force, b) It will definitely obey the orders entrusted upon it by the human beings except in cases where such orders gets contradicted with the First Law , c) It will shield its existence until and unless such shielding gets inconsistent with the First or Second Law (Isaac Asimovs "Three Laws of Robotics). But with the advancement of artificial intelligence, Cyberneticists have proved that the robots can imitate behaviors, can learn from the mistakes, posses the power of generation multiplication through probabilistic mode of self reproduction, and can become possessor of unbounded life span through self repairing mechanism (McNally and Inayatullah). Robots after gaining these powers will definitely claim equal human rights. However if equal human rights are bestowed upon the robots the world can face tremendous devastations or advancement with the possibility of subordination of the human race under the authority of robots unless and until the three laws of robotics do not gets